Desigualdade no acesso à saúde entre as áreas urbanas e rurais do Brasil: uma decomposição de fatores entre 1998 a 2008 / Inequality in access to health services between urban and rural areas in Brazil: a disaggregation of factors from 1998 to 2008 / Desigualdad en el acceso a la salud entre áreas urbanas y rurales de Brasil: una descomposición de factores entre 1998 a 2008

O acesso à saúde é uma importante dimensão das desigualdades entre áreas urbanas e rurais. O acesso é menor nas áreas rurais em função da maior vulnerabilidade social de sua população e das maiores dificuldades de acesso que seus grupos sociais estão submetidos. A partir de dados do suplemento de saúde da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios, foram analisados os determinantes do acesso e das diferenças entre áreas urbanas e rurais nos anos de 1998 a 2008. A análise dos determinantes do acesso aos serviços de saúde foi realizada pelo modelo de regressão logística binária. As diferenças entre áreas urbanas e rurais foram decompostas em fatores observáveis (fatores de capacitação, necessidade e predisposição) e não observáveis (oferta e dificuldade de acesso). Os resultados destacam que a desigualdade de acesso é elevada e maior nas áreas rurais. Os fatores de necessidade são determinantes fundamentais do acesso à saúde, enquanto que os fatores de capacitação são mais importantes para explicar as diferenças entre as áreas urbanas e rurais. A tênue redução das diferenças no período se deveu fundamentalmente a mudanças na composição da população rural.

Access to healthcare is an important dimension of inequalities between urban and rural areas. Access is lower in rural areas due to the population's greater social vulnerability and greater difficulties in access among its social groups. Based on data from the health supplement of the Brazilian National Household Sample Survey, we analyzed the determinants of access and differences between urban and rural areas from 1998 to 2008. The analysis of determinants of access to health services used binary logistic regression. Differences between urban and rural areas were disaggregated as observable factors (enabling, need, and predisposing) and non-observable factors (supply and difficulty in access). The results highlight that inequality in access is higher in rural areas. Need factors are fundamental determinants of access to health, while enabling factor are more important for explaining the differences between urban and rural areas. The slight reduction in differences during the period was due mainly to changes in the rural population's composition.

El acceso a la salud es una importante dimensión de las desigualdades entre áreas urbanas y rurales. El acceso es menor en las áreas rurales, en función de una mayor vulnerabilidad social de su población y de las mayores dificultades de acceso a la que están sometidos sus grupos sociales. A partir de los datos del suplemento de salud de la Encuesta Nacional por Muestra de Domicilios, se analizaron los determinantes de acceso y diferencias entre áreas urbanas y rurales, desde el año 1998 a 2008. El análisis de los determinantes de acceso a los servicios de salud se realizó mediante un modelo de regresión logística binaria. Las diferencias entre áreas urbanas y rurales se dividieron en factores observables (factores de capacitación, necesidad y predisposición) y no observables (oferta y dificultad de acceso). Los resultados destacan que la desigualdad de acceso es elevada y superior en las áreas rurales. Los factores de necesidad son determinantes fundamentales del acceso a la salud, mientras que los factores de capacitación son más importantes para explicar las diferencias entre áreas urbanas y rurales. La tenue reducción de las diferencias en el período se debió fundamentalmente a cambios en la composición de la población rural.

Access to prenatal care: inequalities in a region with high maternal mortality in southeastern Brazil / Acesso ao pré-natal: desigualdades em região de alta mortalidade materna do sudeste brasileiro

Abstract Aim This article aims to evaluate access to prenatal care according to the dimensions of availability, affordability and acceptability in the SUS microregion of southeastern Brazil. Methods A cross-sectional study conducted in 2012-2013 that selected 742 postpartum women in seven hospitals in the region chosen for the research. The information was collected, processed and submitted to the chi-square test and the nonparametric Spearman’s test, with p-values less than 5% (p < 0.05). Results Although the SUS constitutionally guarantees universal access to health care, there are still inequalities between pregnant women from rural and urban areas in terms of the availability of health care and among families earning up to minimum wage and more than one minimum wage per month in terms of affordability; however, the acceptability of health care was equal, regardless of the modality of the health services. Conclusion The location, transport resources and financing of health services should be reorganised, and the training of health professionals should be enhanced to provide more equitable health care access to pregnant women.

Resumo Este artigo tem por objetivo avaliar o acesso à assistência pré-natal segundo as dimensões de disponibilidade, capacidade de pagar e aceitabilidade, no SUS de uma microrregião do sudeste brasileiro. Trata-se de um estudo seccional, realizado em 2012-2013, que selecionou 742 puérperas em sete maternidades da região escolhida para a pesquisa. As informações foram coletadas, processadas e submetidas ao teste Qui-quadrado e ao teste não paramétrico de Spearman, com p-valor menor que 5% (p < 0,05). Apesar de o SUS garantir constitucionalmente o acesso universal ao sistema de saúde, nota-se que ainda existem iniquidades entre as puérperas da zona rural e urbana quanto à disponibilidade e, entre as famílias que ganham até um salário mínimo e mais de um salário mínimo por mês, quando se relaciona à capacidade de pagar, porém a aceitabilidade revelou-se igual, independentemente da modalidade dos serviços de saúde. O local de moradia, os recursos de transporte e o financiamento dos serviços de saúde devem ser reorganizados, e a formação dos profissionais de saúde aprimorada, a fim de oferecer um acesso mais justo às gestantes.

Los procesos de salud-enfermedad-atención desde la perspectiva de los usuarios de una policlínica del primer nivel de atención en Montevideo, Uruguay: Análisis de trayectos terapéuticos / The health-disease-care process from the perspective of the users of a primary care clinic in Montevideo, Uruguay: An analysis of therapeutic trajectories

Desde un abordaje etnográfico, este trabajo se propone analizar las experiencias en los procesos de salud-enfermedad-atención de usuarios de una policlínica de la Red de Atención Primaria Metropolitana de la Administración de los Servicios de Salud del Estado (ASSE) en Uruguay. El trabajo de campo se desarrolló en la zona noreste de la ciudad de Montevideo, desde julio de 2012 a setiembre de 2013, y combinó observación participante en espacios asistenciales y sociales y entrevistas a más de 20 usuarios. Mediante el análisis de trayectos terapéuticos encontramos que las personas combinan diferentes prácticas y sentidos a la hora de enfrentar sus padecimientos. El uso de los servicios de salud biomédicos es predominante en nuestro país; sin embargo, observamos que las personas integran prácticas de autoatención y, en algunos casos, el uso de sistemas de atención populares y religiosos. Se evidencia un pluralismo médico al enfrentar ciertos malestares de la vida cotidiana o experiencias de enfermedad significativas.

The aim of this paper is to analyze, using an ethnographic approach, the health-disease-care experiences of the users of a multi-specialty clinic that forms part of the Metropolitan Primary Health Care Network of Uruguay's Public Health Services. The fieldwork was carried out in the northeast of Montevideo from July 2012 to November 2013, combining participant observation in social and care spaces and interviews with more than 20 users. In our analysis of care trajectories we found that people incorporate different practices and beliefs when facing their health problems. The use of biomedical health care services is predominant in Uruguay; nevertheless, people engage in self-care practices and in some cases, in the use of folk, religious/magical or alternative remedies. Medical pluralism is therefore observed in facing certain common ailments or significant experiences of disease.

Tentativas de suicídio atendidas em unidades públicas de saúde de Fortaleza-Ceará, Brasil / Suicide attempts treated at public health units of Fortaleza-Ceará, Brazil / Intentos de suicidio atendidas en instituciones de salud pública en Fortaleza-Ceará, Brasil

Objetivos Descrever as principais características de vítimas de tentativas de suicídio atendidas em instituições públicas de saúde de Fortaleza-Ceará, Brasil. Método Estudo quantitativo, utilizaram-se um questionário com perguntas estruturadas e Inventário de Depressão de Beck. Trabalhou-se com amostra por conveniência com 360 vítimas nos Centros de Atenção Psicossocial Geral, Atenção ao usuário de álcool/ drogas, Assistência à criança/adolescente, Hospital Doutor José Frota e Projeto de Apoio à Vida. Resultados Na análise estatística, usouse como variável dependente mais de uma tentativa de suicídio, associada às variáveis independentes. Na análise multivariada com mais de uma tentativa, e com significância (p<0,05), mantiveram associação: sexo masculino, OR=2,1 (IC95 %:1,2-3,6), p=0,005; sentimento de rejeição, RC=2,4 (IC95 %:1,4-3,9), p=0,001; internamento em hospital psiquiátrico, RC=3,4 (IC95 % :2,0-5,7), p=0,000; acreditar decepcionar alguém, RC=2,4 (IC95 %:1,3-4,4), p=0,005; depressão, RC=1,0 (IC95 %:1,0-1,0), p=0,001. Conclusão Os dados apontam a necessidade de maior atenção a essa população, no sentido de promover diferenciados serviços de apoio, quer psicológico, quer psiquiátrico para melhoria de vida das pessoas.

Objective This study aimed to describe the main characteristics of victims of suicide attempts treated at public health units of Fortaleza-Ceara, Brazil. Methods With a quantitative approach, we used a questionnaire with structured questions and the Beck Scale for depression. We worked with a convenience sample of 360 victims in Psychosocial Care Centers (General/Alcohol-Drug/Infant to Teen), Doutor José Frota Hospital, and the Apoio à Vida Project . Results In the statistical analysis, the dependent variable of more than one suicide attempt was used, associated to the independent variables. Multivariate analysis, with more than one attempt and significance (p<0.05), maintained association: male OR=2,1 (IC95 %: 1,2-3,6), p=0,005; feeling rejected, RC=2,4, (IC95 %:1,4-3,9), p=0,001; admission to psychiatric hospital, RC=3,4 (IC95 %:2,0-5,7), p=0,000; believing to have disappointed someone, RC=2,4 (IC95 %:1,3-4,4), p=0,005; depression, RC=1,0 (IC95 %: 1,0-1,0), p=0,001. Conclusion The data shows the need for greater attention to this population, in the sense of promoting differentiated service support, either psychological or psychiatric, to improve people's lives.

Objetivos Este estudio tuvo como objetivo describir las principales características de las víctimas de intentos de suicidio atendidas en instituciones de salud pública en Fortaleza-Ceará, Brasil. Métodos Estudio cuantitativo, se utilizó un cuestionario con preguntas estructuradas y el Inventario de Depresión de Beck. Se trabajó con una muestra de conveniencia con 360 víctimas en los Centros de Atención Psicosocial General, Atención al usuario de alcohol/drogas, la asistencia a los niños/adolescentes, Hospital Instituto José Frota y el Proyecto de Apoyo a la Vida. Resultados En el análisis estadístico, se utilizó como variable dependiente más de un intento de suicidio, asociado con las variables independientes. En el análisis multivariante, con más de un intento, y la significación (p<0,05), se mantuvo asociada: hombre, OR=2,1 (IC95 %:1,2-3,6), p=0,005; sentimiento de rechazo, OR=2,4 (IC95 % :1,4-3,9), p=0,001; ingreso en el hospital psiquiátrico, OR=3,4 (IC95 % :2,0-5,7), p = 0,000; creer decepcionar a alguien, OR=2,4 (IC95 %:1,3-4,4), p=0,005; depresión, OR=1,0 (IC95 % :1,0-1,0), p=0,001. Conclusión Los datos apuntan la necesidad de una mayor atención a esta población, en el sentido de promover diferenciados servicios de apoyo, sea psicológica, sea psiquiátrica para mejorar la vida de las personas.

Prevalencia de enfermedad renal crónica en centros urbanos de atención primaria / Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in subjects consulting in urban primary care clinics

Background: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major worldwide public health problem and is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and death. Aim: To assess CKD prevalence in urban Primary Care Services (PCS) of Concepcion, Chile. Material and Methods: The clinical records of 27.894 adults aged 55 ± 18 years (66 percent females), consulting in outpatient clinics and in whom serum creatinine was measured, with or without assessment of urine albumin levels, were reviewed. The glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was estimated using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD)-4 equation. CKD was defined as an eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 and classified according to the National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (NFK-KDOQI) guidelines. Results: Mean eGFR was 77.1 ± 16.3 ml/min/1.73 m2. Twelve percent of subjects had CKD (women, 14.5 percent and men 7,4 percent, p < 0,05). The prevalence of stages 3, 4 and 5 of CKD were 11.6, 0.3 and 0.2 percent respectively. eGFR was negatively correlated with age ( r = -0,54, p < 0,05). Among patients with an eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2, 96.3 percent had eGFR 30-59, 2.3 percent 15-29 and 1.4 percent < of 15. Seventy nine percent were women. 75.1 percent were aged 65 years or more, 26.8 percent had a serum creatinine equal or less than 1.0 mg/dL and 40.5 percent had microalbuminuria. Only 1 percent of outpatients ascribed to Cardiovascular or Diabetes Programs had the diagnosis of CKD registered. Independent risk predictors of CKD were age > 60 years, female sex and microalbuminuria. Conclusions: This study showed a high prevalence of CKD in ambulatory patients, mainly among women and older people. The low level of diagnosis of CKD in cardiovascular and diabetes programs is of concern.

Cumplimiento de garantía de oportunidad GES en ayudas técnicas en una comuna urbana de la Región Metropolitana / Compliance with punctuality guarantees (GES) for technical assistance in an urban county of the Metropolitan Region

Objetivo: El sistema de garantías explícitas en salud (GES) considera problemas prioritarios de salud. El objetivo es evaluar el cumplimiento de la garantía de oportunidad en la entrega de ayudas técnicas (AT) en tres centros de salud de una comuna urbana de la Región Metropolitana. Material y método: Estudio no experimental de tipo descriptivo, que utiliza medidas de frecuencia, mediana, percentil 25-75 y amplitud intercuartil. Los datos fueron analizados con el programa SPSS 17.0 para Windows, con Kruskal-Wallis para establecer diferencias en el nivel de cumplimiento entre los centros de salud (p<0.05). Se incluyeron las prestaciones registradas en Sigges entre el 1 de enero de 2007 hasta el 13 de enero de 2011. Según el tipo de AT, la muestra fue organizada en 2 grupos, prestaciones con plazo de 20 días (n = 473) y el grupo 2 con plazo de 90 días (n = 406). Resultados: De las prestaciones correspondientes al grupo N°1, sólo el45.7 por ciento fue entregada dentro de los plazos que establece GES. Por su parte, el grupo N°2 presenta un porcentaje de cumplimiento de 68.7 por ciento. Conclusiones: El porcentaje de cumplimiento de la garantía de oportunidad fue para el primer grupo menor a la mitad de las prestaciones y en el segundo grupo si bien mejora, casi en un tercio de ellas no se cumple la garantía de oportunidad en las AT en los plazos establecidos por ley.

Objective: The system of explicit health guarantees (GES) covers priority health problems. The objective of the study was to evaluate compliance with the guarantee of punctuality of technical assistance in three health centers in an urban community in the Metropolitan Region. Materials and methods: Non experimental descriptive study, which used measures of frequency, median, 5-75 percentile and interquartile range. The data was analyzed with SPSS 17.0 for Windows, with Kruskal-Wallis to establish differences in compliance among health centers (p<0.05). All technical assistance provisions in Sigges between January 1, 2007 until January 13, 2011 were included. According to the type of technical assistance, the sample was organized in two groups, group 1, assistance with a time limit of 20 days (n = 473) and group 2, assistance with a limit of 90 days (n = 406). Results: Of all assistance from group 1, only 45.7 per cent were fulfilled within the time limits established by GES. In group 2, compliance was 68.7 per cent. Conclusions: The percentage of compliance with the guarantee of punctuality for the first group accounted for less than half of all assistance in that group, and although compliance was better in the second group, almost a third of all assistance in that group did not comply with the time limits established by law.

Barriers to the adoption of the ART approach as perceived by dental practitioners in governmental dental clinics, in Tanzania

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the magnitude of the barriers to the practice of Atraumatic Restorative Treatment (ART) as perceived by dental practitioners working in pilot dental clinics, and determine the influence of these barriers on the practice of ART. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A validated and tested questionnaire on barriers that may hinder the practice of ART was administered to 20 practitioners working in 13 pilot clinics. Factor analysis was performed to generate barrier factors. These were patient load, management support, cost sharing, ART skills and operator opinion. The pilot clinics kept records of teeth extracted; teeth restored by conventional approach and teeth restored by ART approach. These treatment records were used to compute the percentage of ART restorations to total teeth treated, percentage of ART restorations to total teeth restored and percentage of total restorations to total teeth treated. The mean barrier scores were generated and compared to independent variables, using the t-test. The influence of barriers to ART-related dependent variables was determined using Pearson correlation coefficients. RESULTS: Mean barrier values were low, indicating low influence on ART practice. Female practitioners had higher scores on patient load than male practitioners (p = 0.003). Assistant Dental Officers had higher scores on cost sharing than Dental Therapists (p = 0.024). Practitioners working in urban clinics had higher mean scores on patient load than those who worked in rural clinics (p = 0.0008). All barrier factors were negatively correlated with ART practice indices but all had insignificant association with ART practice indices. CONCLUSION: The barriers studied were of low magnitude, with no significant impact on practice of ART in dental clinics in the pilot area.

Awareness and pattern of utilizing family planning services among women attending urban health care center Azizabad Sukkur

To assess level of awareness and pattern of utilizing family planning services among women [15-49 years] of reproductive age at Urban Health Center, Azizabad Sukkur, Sindh. A cross-sectional study was conducted from April to June 2005 at Urban Health Care Center Azizabad Sukkur. Two hundred women of reproductive age group were interviewed by using a PRE tested semi structured questionnaire visiting the health care center during the study period. Information was obtained after taking informed consent regarding socio demographic characteristics, knowledge, attitude and pattern of utilizing family planning services. The data was entered and analyzed by using statistical package SPSS version 13. About 75% of women and 42.5% husbands were found illiterate, 85% women were housewives, 69.5% were married before 18 years of age and 54% had nuclear family. Regarding desired number of children women responded one child [3%], 2-3 children [11%], 4-5 [37.5%], more than five children [36%], 5.5% said that children are God gifted and 7% did not answer. About 60% of women reported use of at least one contraceptive method and 40% had never used any contraceptive method. The women who received counseling from the health care provider were 48.5% and only 6% received information through media. Religious prohibition, shortage of female staff and cost of family planning contraceptive methods were the main reasons identified for not utilizing contraceptive methods. The unsatisfactory variables were long waiting hours at the center, non-availability of contraceptive, shortage of the female staff and cost. Limited number of women was aware and practice contraception in the area and utilization of family planning services were low. The efforts should be made for providing information to couple and improving quality of family planning services in the area

Pattern of health care utilization and determinants of care-seeking from GPs in two districts of Pakistan.

The aims of the study were to describe the pattern of health care utilization and out-of-pocket expenses incurred in seeking health care, and to identify the determinants of care-seeking from private general practitioners (GP) in two districts of Pakistan. During July-September 2001, we conducted a cross-sectional study in two districts in the Sindh Province of Pakistan. We selected 1,150 participants age > or = 3 months through a two-stage cluster sampling technique. Information was collected about contacts with healthcare providers during the past three months, presenting complaints, type of treatment received, and cost of the latest visit. Of 1,150 participants, 967 (84%) had at least one contact with health care providers during past three months. The mean number of contacts was 1.7. Most of the contacts (66.8%) were with private GPs. The average cost per visit was Pak Rs 106 (US dollar 1.7) and Rs 38 (US dollar 0.6) for GPs and public sector providers, respectively. A multiple logistic regression model revealed those living in urban areas, with monthly household income > Rs 2,500 (US dollar 39.7), an education level > 5 years, and who received both injections and oral drugs were more likely to visit private general practitioners.

Como solucionar el déficit de médicos en los consultorios urbanos municipalizados / The way to solve the deficit of physicians in the municipalized urban health clinics

El déficit de médicos y su mala distribución geográfica eran los problemas que enfrentaba el país cuando se crea el Servicio Nacional de Salud en 1952. El país tenía una alta proporción de población rural, así como de población infantil y las patologías que predominaban eran las propias de un país subdesarrollado. Para enfrentar esta situación se crea la institución del Médico General de Zona, cuyo propósito fundamental fue trabajar en equipo con otros profesionales y trabajadores de salud en las localidades rurales más apartadas y con mayores necesidades de atención. El país ha sufrido profundos cambios demográficos y epidemiológicos. Ha disminuido la población infantil y ha aumentado la población de adultos. La población rural es sólo un 13,4 por ciento del total y ellos viven en una ruralidad muy diferente. La mayor parte de la población se concentra hoy en grandes conglomerados urbanos y dentro de éstos en comunas con altos índices de pobreza. Los establecimientos del nivel primario del sistema público de atención están en su mayoría hoy bajo administración municipal, desintegrados del sistema y con un alto déficit cuantitativo de médicos y otros profesionales críticos para la atención de salud de esas poblaciones. Este déficit está documentado a cabalidad en el artículo. El Estatuto de Atención Primaria promulgado en 1995 no resolvió el problema de déficit de médicos, por el contrario, lo agravó. Frente a esta situación se plantea una nueva modalidad de contratación de médicos para estos establecimientos, a través de la ley 19.664.

Quality of health care from patient perspectives.

The quality of health care is the consequence of strong link between service providers and user of the services. Perceived quality is one of the principal determinant of utilisation and non-utilisation of health services, a major issue in developing countries. Considering this, the present study was aimed to assess the quality of care in in-patient and outpatient departments of rural and urban government hospitals in Bangladesh. A total of 2420 patients were interviewed. The patients were selected by using systematic random sampling technique. Results revealed that age, waiting time, time spent for patient examination, place of treatment, income, years of schooling and male sex appeared to be independent predictors of patient satisfaction (p<0.001). Age, waiting time and years of schooling were negatively related with level of satisfaction indicating younger patients, less waiting time and patients with less education were more satisfied, whereas time spent for examination, income were positively related with patient's satisfaction. Patients attending at the urban hospitals and male sex were also significantly associated with patient's satisfaction. The study recommends that both short and long-term policy action should be adopted for quality assurance of the existing health care facilities in Bangladesh.

Patient-led partner referral in a district hospital based STD clinic.

CONTEXT: Sexual communication and appropriate treatment of sexual partners is critical to the success of STD and HIV/AIDS prevention and control. AIMS: To understand factors influencing intention of STD patients to inform their regular sexual partners and identify predictors influencing actual return of the partners. SETTINGS AND DESIGN: A non-randomised survey of patients attending STD clinic in a district hospital between May and November 2000. METHODS AND MATERIAL: 182 patients were administered structured questionnaires to understand their intention to notify their regular sexual partners and encouraged to refer their regular sexual partners to the clinic for management. Factors related to intent to notify partners and actual partner referral were analysed. Statistical analysis used: Chi square test and forward stepwise logistic regression. RESULTS: Of the 182 STD patients 77.47% expressed their positive intention to notify their regular sexual partners. However, overall partner return rate was 40.65%. Patients from a better economic class (p=0.014), those who had sex since having the disease (p=0.001), those who felt it was easy to tell their partners (p=0.047) and perceived the necessity of investigating their partners (p<0.001) were more likely to have an intention to notify their partners. Independent predictors of actual return of sexual partners were patients' perception of partners' susceptibility (p=0.044), positive intention to notify partners (p=0.001), partners already informed before clinic visit (p=0.030) and presence of genital ulcerative diseases (p=0.033). CONCLUSIONS: STD clinic counselling and education should focus on risk reduction, partner susceptibility, role of STDs in HIV transmission and improving spousal communication.

General practitioner prescribing patterns in Babol city, Islamic Republic of Iran

To determine patterns of prescribing in Iranian primary care, we analysed 4000 randomly selected prescriptions from 52 general practitioners [GPs] in Babol city during 1999-2000. The mean number of drugs prescribed per encounter was 4.4 +/- 1.7, with 98% prescribed by generic name. The most commonly prescribed items were non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [62.9% of encounters] and antibiotics [61.9%], followed by central nervous system drugs, gastrointestinal tract drugs, corticosteroids, vitamins and cardiovascular system drugs respectively. Injections were prescribed in 58.0% of encounters. Female and male doctors had significantly different antibiotic prescribing patterns. Our study confirms the tendency of GPs to overprescribe

The pattern of 'drop-out' of smear-positive cases at an urban leprosy centre.

One hundred nineteen smear-positive leprosy cases registered at an urban leprosy centre in Bombay in 1991 were followed for three years to study the 'drop-out' pattern in them and judge the utility of some corrective measures for the same. The measures included having maps showing exact location of the patient's residence, paying home visits on registration days and subsequent persuasion and counselling both at the clinic and at the residence of patients. The results were compared with 'drop-out' in smear-positive cases registered at the same centre in 1989, 1990, 1992 and 1993. By introduction of the special measures, the 'drop-out' rate was significantly reduced from 52% (for other years) to 36% (1991). The expenses incurred for the successful recovery of 'drop-out prone' patients and ensuring regularity in drug intake was Rs. 659/- per patient. This study of 'drop-out' patient shows that there are three categories of the so-called drop-outs: (i) the false 'drop-outs' (51%): these patients get transfer as per their convenience to other leprosy centres or medical services (private practitioners or consultants) within the city (ii) drop-outs due to migration: the migration is forced on them due to some genuine reason, and (iii) persistent offenders: this is a group of adamant, non co-operative, or, distressed patients. For the first two category of patients it is advisable to introduce a good referral system. For the recalcitrant defaulters, supervised short-term drug therapy will probably be the best option.

A leprosy survey in a taluk headquarters town and the role of dermatological services and active health education in its success--a preliminary report.

A report of two general surveys done in 1984 and 1987 in Gudiyatham town, is presented. The first survey covered 89.2% and the second survey 82% of the population. The new case detection rate was 3.4 per 1000. The success of the survey was due to the co-operation obtained from the public, most probably because of the intense and sustained health education, combined with leprosy services integrated with a dermatology clinic.